Overview of eating disorders
<p>Eating disorders are a group of mental health conditions characterised by a persistent disturbance in an individual's eating behaviour and attitudes towards food. These disorders often have serious physical and psychological consequences and can have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life.</p><p>There are several types of eating disorders, including:</p>
What are eating disorders?
It is important to note that the DSM-5-TR criteria provide a diagnostic framework for eating disorders and should not be used as the sole basis for making a diagnosis. A comprehensive evaluation, including a thorough medical and psychiatric history and physical examination, is necessary to make an accurate diagnosis.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition Text Revision (DSM-5-TR) defines eating disorders as a group of conditions characterised by persistent disturbances in eating behaviour and related thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. According to the DSM-5-TR, the following are the specific diagnostic criteria for eating disorders:
Anorexia nervosa 
The DSM-5-TR defines anorexia nervosa as a restriction of energy intake relative to needs leading to a significantly low body weight, intense fear of gaining weight, or persistent behaviour that interferes with weight gain, and an unduly influenced self-evaluation based on body weight or shape.
Bulimia nervosa
The DSM-5-TR defines bulimia nervosa as recurrent episodes of binge eating characterised by eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any two-hour period), an amount of food that is definitely larger than most people would eat during a similar period of time and under similar circumstances, and a feeling of a lack of control over eating during the episode. Additionally, the individual must engage in compensatory behaviours, such as fasting, purging (e.g., self-induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas), or excessive exercise, to prevent weight gain.
Binge eating disorder
The DSM-5-TR defines binge eating disorder as recurrent episodes of binge eating characterised by eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any two-hour period), an amount of food that is definitely larger than most people would eat during a similar period of time and under similar circumstances, and a feeling of a lack of control over eating during the episode. Unlike bulimia nervosa, the individual does not engage in compensatory behaviours to prevent weight gain.
Other specified feeding or eating disorders (OSFED)
This category includes conditions that meet some but not all of the criteria for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or binge eating disorder, and result in significant distress and impairment. Examples of OSFED include atypical anorexia nervosa (in which the individual has maintained a normal weight) and purging disorder (in which the individual engages in purging behaviours without binge eating).
What are the symptoms of eating disorders?
<p>The symptoms of eating disorders vary depending on the specific disorder, but they often include disturbances in eating behaviour, body image, and self-esteem. Some common symptoms include:</p><p>Anorexia nervosa:</p><ul><li>Restriction of caloric intake leading to significant weight loss</li><li>Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat</li><li>Distorted body image, persistent denial of the seriousness of low body weight</li><li>Menstrual irregularities or the cessation of menstrual periods in females</li><li>Fainting, fatigue, and weakness</li></ul><p>Bulimia nervosa:</p><ul><li>Recurrent episodes of binge eating, during which the individual consumes large amounts of food in a short period of time</li><li>Purging behaviours such as self-induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas</li><li>Compulsive exercising</li><li>Binge eating followed by feelings of guilt and shame</li><li>Electrolyte imbalances and dehydration</li></ul><p>Binge eating disorder:</p><ul><li>Recurrent episodes of binge eating, during which the individual consumes large amounts of food in a short period of time and experiences a feeling of a lack of control over eating</li><li>Eating alone because of embarrassment about the amount of food being consumed</li><li>Feelings of guilt, shame, and distress after binge eating episodes</li><li>Weight fluctuations</li></ul><p>Other specified feeding or eating disorders (OSFED):</p><ul><li>Behaviours and attitudes related to eating that cause significant distress and impairment, but do not meet the full criteria for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or binge eating disorder.</li></ul>
Those experiencing any of the symptoms of an eating disorder should seek professional help. Eating disorders can have serious physical and psychological consequences and early intervention is crucial for a successful recovery.
How to diagnose eating disorders
<p>Eating disorders are diagnosed through a comprehensive evaluation that includes:</p>
Note that the diagnosis of an eating disorder is complex and should only be made by a qualified mental health professional with expertise in the assessment and treatment of eating disorders. The clinician will also consider any additional information that may be relevant to the individual's case, such as cultural, social, and family factors.
Common treatment approaches for eating disorders
<p>The treatment of eating disorders typically involves a combination of medical and psychological approaches, tailored to meet the individual's specific needs. Some common treatments for eating disorders include:</p>
It should be kept in mind that the treatment of eating disorders is a long-term process and requires a collaborative and comprehensive approach that involves the individual, their family, and a team of healthcare professionals. The treatment plan should be adjusted as needed to meet the individual's changing needs and ensure their continued progress and recovery.
Best practice treatment guides for eating disorders
These treatment guidelines are not intended to be a substitute for individualised clinical judgment and the best treatment approach may vary based on the individual's specific needs and circumstances. It is recommended that individuals with eating disorders seek care from a qualified mental health professional with expertise in the assessment and treatment of these conditions.
Here are some best practice treatment guides for eating disorders:
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines
NICE is a UK-based organisation that provides guidelines for the treatment of eating disorders. The NICE guidelines provide evidence-based recommendations for the assessment, treatment, and management of individuals with eating disorders.
Academy for Eating Disorders (AED) Treatment Guidelines
The AED is a professional organisation for individuals who treat eating disorders. Their treatment guidelines provide comprehensive, up-to-date information on the best practices for the treatment of eating disorders.
The American Psychiatric Association (APA) Practice Guidelines
The APA provides practice guidelines for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, including eating disorders. These guidelines provide recommendations for the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of individuals with eating disorders.
World Health Organization (WHO) Treatment Guidelines
WHO provides guidelines for the treatment of mental and behavioural disorders, including eating disorders. These guidelines provide a comprehensive approach to the treatment of eating disorders, including the role of psychotherapy, medical care, and medication management.
Common comorbidities with eating disorders
Eating disorders often occur in conjunction with other mental and physical health conditions, known as comorbidities. Some common comorbidities with eating disorders include:
It is important to understand that comorbidities can complicate the assessment and treatment of eating disorders, and that a comprehensive and integrated approach to treatment is often necessary. The presence of comorbid conditions should be taken into consideration when developing a treatment plan for an individual with an eating disorder.
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1
Mood and anxiety disorders
Individuals with eating disorders are at a higher risk for developing mood and anxiety disorders, such as depression, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
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2
Substance use disorders
Substance use disorders, including alcohol and drug abuse, are commonly comorbid with eating disorders.
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3
Personality disorders
Individuals with eating disorders may also have a personality disorder, such as borderline personality disorder (BPD) or avoidant personality disorder.
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4
Trauma and abuse
Trauma and abuse, including physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, are frequently associated with the development of eating disorders.
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Cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems
Eating disorders can have serious physical health consequences, including cardiovascular problems, such as irregular heartbeats, and gastrointestinal problems, such as bloating and constipation.
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Bone health problems
Eating disorders can also have significant impacts on bone health, including osteoporosis and osteopenia.
MHA courses on eating disorders
<ul><li><a target='_blank' href='https://www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au/catalogue/courses/intuitive-eating-helping-clients-develop-a-healthier-relationship-with-food'>Intuitive Eating: Helping Clients Develop a Healthier Relationship with Food</a></li><li><a target='_blank' href='https://www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au/catalogue/courses/dialectical-behaviour-therapy-for-eating-disorders'>Dialectical Behaviour Therapy for Eating Disorders</a></li><li><a target='_blank' href='https://www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au/catalogue/courses/eating-disorders-from-diagnostic-criteria-to-treatment'>Eating Disorders: From Diagnostic Criteria to Treatment</a></li><li><a target='_blank' href='https://www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au/catalogue/courses/diagnosing-eating-disorders'>Diagnosing Eating Disorders</a></li><li><a target='_blank' href='https://www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au/catalogue/courses/dialectical-behaviour-therapy-case-studies'>Dialectical Behaviour Therapy: Case Studies</a></li><li><a target='_blank' href='https://www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au/credential/addictions/members'>Working with Behavioural Addictions</a></li><li><a target='_blank' href='https://www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au/catalogue/courses/the-basics-of-interpersonal-therapy'>The Basics of Interpersonal Therapy</a></li><li><a target='_blank' href='https://www.mentalhealthacademy.com.au/catalogue/courses/using-guided-discovery-recovery-oriented-cognitive-therapy-strengthening-hope-purpose-worthwhileness'>Using Guided Discovery in Recovery-Oriented Cognitive Therapy: Strengthening Hope, Purpose, and Worthwhileness</a></li></ul>
Frequently asked questions about eating disorders
What strategies can a patient use to manage their eating disorders in daily life?
<p>Managing an eating disorder can be challenging, but with support, guidance, and the right strategies, individuals can make progress toward recovery and improve their quality of life. Here are some strategies to manage eating disorder symptoms:</p><ul><li><em>Practice self-care</em>. Taking care of one's physical and emotional wellbeing through activities such as exercise, relaxation, and self-reflection can help individuals with eating disorders feel better and maintain their progress in treatment.</li><li><em>Challenge negative thoughts</em>. Negative thoughts about food, body image, and weight are common in individuals with eating disorders. Challenging these thoughts and learning to reframe them in a more positive light can help to reduce their negative impact.</li><li><em>Connect with supportive people</em>. Surrounding oneself with supportive and understanding people, such as friends, family, and support groups, can provide individuals who have eating disorders with the encouragement and validation they need to stay on track with their treatment goals.</li><li><em>Eat regularly</em>. Consistently eating three meals and two snacks a day can help individuals with eating disorders establish healthy eating habits and prevent bingeing and purging.</li><li><em>Be mindful of triggers</em>. Triggers, such as stress, anxiety, and negative body image, can cause individuals with eating disorders to engage in problematic behaviours. Identifying and avoiding triggers can help to prevent the onset of symptoms.</li><li><em>Practice stress-management techniques</em>. Stress can trigger the onset of symptoms in individuals with eating disorders. Engaging in stress-management activities, such as yoga, meditation, or deep breathing, can help individuals manage their stress levels and prevent the onset of symptoms.</li></ul><p>Remember: everyone's experience with an eating disorder is unique – what works for one person may not work for another. It is recommended that individuals with eating disorders work with a qualified mental health professional to develop an individualised treatment plan that incorporates strategies that work best for them.</p>
What therapeutic approaches are most effective in treating patients with eating disorders?
<p>The most effective therapeutic approaches for treating patients with eating disorders typically involve a combination of the following:</p><ul><li><em>Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT).</em> CBT is a form of talk therapy that focuses on changing negative thought patterns and behaviours related to food and body image. This type of therapy has been shown to be highly effective in treating eating disorders, particularly bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder.</li><li><em>Family-based therapy (FBT). </em>FBT is a form of therapy that involves the family in the treatment process. This approach has been found to be particularly effective in treating adolescents with anorexia nervosa, as it helps to address issues within the family dynamic that may be contributing to the eating disorder.</li><li><em>Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT).</em> IPT is a form of talk therapy that focuses on improving social and interpersonal relationships. This type of therapy has been found to be effective in treating individuals with eating disorders, as it can help to address the emotional and social challenges that may be contributing to the eating disorder.</li><li><em>Nutritional therapy.</em> Nutritional therapy is an important component of treatment for individuals with eating disorders, as it can help to restore a healthy weight, improve nutrient status, and correct any nutrient deficiencies. This type of therapy is typically provided by a registered dietitian with specialised training in eating disorders.</li><li><em>Medication</em>. In some cases, medication may be prescribed in conjunction with psychotherapy to help manage symptoms of depression, anxiety, or obsessive-compulsive disorder.</li></ul><p>The most effective treatment approach will depend on the individual patient, the severity of their symptoms, and any co-occurring mental health conditions. Individuals should work with a mental health professional who has experience in treating eating disorders to determine the best course of treatment.</p><p>In addition to these therapeutic approaches, it can also be beneficial for patients with eating disorders to participate in support groups, engage in physical activity, and make lifestyle changes that support recovery and overall health and wellbeing.</p>
What are the potential complications of eating disorders?
<p>Eating disorders can have serious and potentially life-threatening consequences, both physically and mentally. Here are some potential complications:</p><ul><li><em>Physical health problems</em>. Eating disorders can have serious physical health consequences, including heart problems, gastrointestinal problems, electrolyte imbalances, and nutrient deficiencies. In severe cases, eating disorders can lead to organ failure and death.</li><li><em>Mental health problems</em>. Eating disorders can have serious mental health consequences, including depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive behaviour. Individuals with eating disorders are also at a higher risk for developing other psychiatric conditions, such as mood and anxiety disorders.</li><li><em>Cognitive problems</em>. Eating disorders can impact an individual's ability to think clearly, concentrate, and make decisions. These cognitive problems can interfere with daily functioning and make it difficult for individuals to participate in treatment.</li><li><em>Social problems</em>. Eating disorders can cause significant social problems, including strained relationships with friends and family, difficulty with work or school, and isolation.</li><li><em>Long-term health consequences</em>. Eating disorders can have long-term health consequences, including damage to bones, teeth, and organs, and an increased risk for certain types of cancer.</li></ul><p>Clearly, these complications can have serious and lasting impacts on an individual's overall health and wellbeing. Early recognition and treatment of eating disorders can help to minimise the severity of these complications and improve the chances of recovery.</p>
How do eating disorders typically affect an individual's mood, energy levels, and motivation?
<p>Eating disorders can have a profound impact on an individual's mood, energy levels, and motivation. Here's how:</p><ul><li><em>Mood</em>. Individuals with eating disorders often experience mood swings and intense feelings of irritability, sadness, and anxiety. These feelings can be exacerbated by feelings of guilt and shame about their eating habits, and can be a trigger for bingeing or purging behaviour.</li><li><em>Energy levels.</em> Eating disorders can cause fluctuations in energy levels, including periods of high energy followed by exhaustion. This is due in part to the impact of malnutrition on the body's ability to produce energy, as well as the psychological effects of the eating disorder on the individual's energy levels.</li><li><em>Motivation</em>. Eating disorders can significantly impact an individual's motivation, making it difficult for them to engage in activities that they once enjoyed, such as hobbies, work, or spending time with friends and family. This can be due to a lack of energy and low mood, as well as feelings of shame and guilt about their eating habits.</li></ul><p>These symptoms are not unique to individuals with eating disorders, but are common among those struggling with these conditions. With the right treatment and support, individuals with eating disorders can make progress towards recovery, and improve their mood, energy levels, and motivation.</p>
What are the common physical and cognitive symptoms of eating disorders?
<p>Eating disorders can have both physical and cognitive symptoms, which can vary depending on the type of eating disorder and the severity of the condition. Here are some common symptoms:</p><p>Physical symptoms:</p><ul><li><em>Changes in weight</em>. Rapid weight loss or weight gain, often accompanied by fluctuations in body size and shape.</li><li><em>Abnormal menstruation</em>. Missed periods or irregular menstrual cycles in women, which can be a sign of hormonal imbalances caused by malnutrition.</li><li><em>Stomach problems</em>. Abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation, which can be a result of binge eating, purging, or other eating disorder behaviours.</li><li><em>Fatigue</em>. Extreme tiredness or low energy levels, which can be a result of malnutrition or an imbalance of essential nutrients.</li><li><em>Muscle weakness</em>. Decreased muscle mass and strength, which can result from malnutrition and disordered eating.</li></ul><p>Cognitive symptoms:</p><ul><li><em>Obsessive thoughts about food, weight, and body shape</em>. An excessive preoccupation with food, weight, and body shape can interfere with daily life and relationships.</li><li><em>Rigid thinking about food</em>. An extreme and inflexible adherence to specific dietary habits and restrictions, even in the face of negative consequences.</li><li><em>Perfectionism</em>. A strong desire to be perfect, particularly in regard to food and body shape, which can lead to a persistent and negative self-image.</li><li><em>Difficulty concentrating</em>. Struggling with attention and focus, which can be a result of malnutrition and the impact of eating disorders on cognitive functioning.</li><li><em>Depression and anxiety</em>. Low mood and feelings of sadness, anxiety, and irritability can be common in individuals with eating disorders.</li></ul><p>As with any mental health condition, these symptoms can range from mild to severe, and each individual with an eating disorder may experience a unique combination of symptoms depending on their specific situation. Early recognition and treatment can help to mitigate the symptoms of eating disorders and improve the chances of a successful recovery.</p>
How do eating disorders typically impact sleep, appetite, and sexual functioning?
<p>Eating disorders can have significant impacts on sleep, appetite, and sexual functioning. Here's how:</p><ul><li><em>Sleep</em>. Individuals with eating disorders may experience sleep disturbances, including difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, and waking up feeling rested. This can be due to the physical and emotional strain caused by the eating disorder, as well as the impact of malnutrition on the body's ability to produce essential hormones and neurotransmitters.</li><li><em>Appetite</em>. Eating disorders can severely disrupt an individual's appetite, leading to changes in their eating patterns and food choices. This can range from a complete loss of appetite to an insatiable hunger, depending on the type of eating disorder and the severity of the condition.</li><li><em>Sexual functioning</em>. Individuals with eating disorders can experience changes in their sexual functioning, including decreased libido, difficulty with arousal, and pain during sexual activity. This can be due to the physical effects of malnutrition, as well as the impact of negative body image and low self-esteem on sexual function and satisfaction.</li></ul><p>These symptoms can be temporary and recovery from eating disorders can lead to improvement in sleep, appetite, and sexual functioning. With the right treatment and support, individuals with eating disorders can make progress toward recovery and improve their overall health and wellbeing.</p>
Do eating disorders increase a patient's likelihood of suicide, and if so, how can a clinician assess suicide ideation?
<p>Individuals with eating disorders are at an increased risk of suicide. In fact, eating disorders have one of the highest mortality rates of any psychiatric disorder, with a significant portion of these deaths being due to suicide.</p><p>To assess for suicide ideation, a clinician should ask the patient directly about their thoughts and feelings regarding suicide, as well as their past experiences with suicide attempts. The clinician can also look for warning signs, such as:</p><ol><li>Increased hopelessness or helplessness</li><li>Withdrawal from friends, family, and social activities</li><li>Changes in sleeping or eating patterns</li><li>Substance abuse</li><li>Increased anxiety or agitation</li><li>Changes in mood or behaviour</li><li>Decreased ability to concentrate or make decision</li></ol><p>If the patient is expressing suicidal thoughts or behaviours, it's important to take these seriously and provide immediate intervention. This may involve contacting emergency services, hospitalisation, or referring the patient to a mental health specialist with experience in treating eating disorders and suicide risk.</p><p>It's also important to emphasise to the patient that they are not alone, and that there is help available to manage their symptoms and overcome their eating disorder. Encouraging the patient to engage in treatment, connect with support groups, and seek out additional resources can help to reduce their risk of suicide and improve their overall prognosis.</p>
Popular books on eating disorders
<ul><li><em>8 Keys to Recovery from an Eating Disorder: Effective Strategies from Therapeutic Practice and Personal Experience</em> (2011) by Carolyn Costin and Gwen Schubert Grabb</li><li><em>The Eating Disorders Sourcebook: A Comprehensive Guide to the Causes, Treatments, and Prevention of Eating Disorders</em> (2007) by Carolyn Costin</li><li><em>Surviving an Eating Disorder: Strategies for Family and Friends </em>(2021) by Michele Siegel, Judith Brisman and Margot Weinshel</li><li><em>Talking to Eating Disorders: Simple Ways to Support Someone with Anorexia, Bulimia, Binge Eating, or Body Image Issues </em>(2005) by Jeanna Albronda Heaton and Claudia J. Strauss</li><li><em>Neural Rewiring for Eating Disorder Recovery: For Real and Meaningful Mental Freedom</em> (2019) by Tabitha Farrar</li><li><em>Find Your Happetite: Eat What You Want and Be Happy with Your (Perfect) Weight</em> (2011) by Sue Zbornik</li><li><em>Skills-based Learning for Caring for a Loved One with an Eating Disorder: The New Maudsley Method</em> (2007) by Janet Treasure, Grainne Smith and Anna Crane</li><li><em>Restoring Our Bodies, Reclaiming Our Lives: Guidance and Reflections on Recovery from Eating Disorders</em> (2011) by Aimee Liu</li><li><em>If Not Dieting, Then What? </em>(2004) by Rick Kausman</li><li><em>Life Beyond Your Eating Disorder: Reclaim Yourself, Regain Your Health, Recover for Good </em>(2010) by Johanna S. Kandel</li><li><em>Health At Every Size: The Surprising Truth About Your Weight </em>(2010) by Linda Bacon</li><li><em>Supporting Autistic People with Eating Disorders: A Guide to Adapting Treatment and Supporting Recovery </em>(2021), edited by Kate Tchanturia</li><li><em>Autism and Eating Disorders in Teens: A Guide for Parents and Professionals </em>(2020) by Fiona Fisher Bullivant and Sharleen Woods</li><li><em>When Your Teen Has an Eating Disorder: Practical Strategies to Help Your Teen Recover from Anorexia, Bulimia, and Binge Eating</em> (2018) by Lauren Muhlheim</li><li><em>Not All Black Girls Know How to Eat: A Story of Bulimia</em> (2009) by Stephanie Covington Armstrong</li><li><em>The Invisible Man: A Self-help Guide for Men with Eating Disorders, Compulsive Exercise and Bigorexia</em> (2008) by John F. Morgan</li><li><em>Intuitive Eating: A Revolutionary Program That Works</em> (2003) by Evelyn Tribole and Elyse Resch</li><li><em>Overcoming Binge Eating, 2<sup>nd</sup> Edition: The Proven Program to Learn Why You Binge and How You Can Stop</em> (2013) by Christopher G. Fairburn</li><li><em>The Anorexia Workbook: How to Accept Yourself, Heal Your Suffering, and Reclaim Your Life </em>(2004) by Michelle Heffner and Georg H. Eifert</li><li><em>The Overcoming Bulimia Workbook: Your Comprehesive Step-by-Step Guide to Recovery</em> (2004) by Randi E. McCabe, Tracy L. McFarlane and Marion P. Olmsted</li><li><em>Brain Over Binge: Why I Was Bulimic, Why Conventional Therapy Didn’t Work, and How I Recovered for Good</em> (2014) by Kathryn Hansen</li></ul>
Recent research eating disorders
<ul><li>National Library of Medicine – <a target='_blank' href='https://doi.org/10.12688%2Ff1000research.17789.1'>Recent advances in understanding anorexia nervosa</a></li><li>Science Alert – <a target='_blank' href='https://www.sciencealert.com/study-shows-anorexia-can-lead-to-dramatic-changes-in-brain-structure'>Anorexia can lead to dramatic changes in brain structure</a></li><li>Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics - <a target='_blank' href='https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2019.07.019'>Athlete-specific treatment for eating disorders: Initial findings from the Walden GOALS Program</a></li><li>Wiley Online Library - <a target='_blank' href='https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/eat.23655'>In-person versus virtual therapy in outpatient eating-disorder treatment: A COVID-19 inspired study</a></li><li>Eating Disorders Victoria – <a target='_blank' href='https://www.eatingdisorders.org.au/eating-disorders-a-z/eating-disorder-statistics-and-key-research/'>Key research and statistics</a></li><li>American Psychological Association – <a target='_blank' href='https://www.apa.org/monitor/2016/04/eating-disorders'>New insights on eating disorders</a></li><li>American Society for Nutrition - <a target='_blank' href='https://nutrition.org/eating-disorders-are-on-the-rise/'>Eating disorders are on the rise</a></li><li>National Eating Disorders Association – <a target='_blank' href='https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/people-color-and-eating-disorders'>People of color and eating disorders</a></li><li>Very Well Mind – <a target='_blank' href='https://www.verywellmind.com/race-racism-and-eating-disorders-5076344'>The impact of race and racism on eating disorders</a></li><li>Molecular Autism – <a target='_blank' href='https://molecularautism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13229-021-00455-5'>Autism symptoms in anorexia nervosa: A comparative study with females with autism spectrum disorder</a></li><li>The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry – <a target='_blank' href='https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13255'>Trajectories of autistic social traits in childhood and adolescence and disordered eating behaviours at age 14 years: A UK general population cohort study</a></li><li>Journal of Eating Disorders – <a target='_blank' href='https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-020-00327-y'>Eating disorders and disordered eating behaviors in the LGBT population: A review of the literature</a></li><li>Cision - <a target='_blank' href='https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-study-finds-more-severe-eating-disorders-among-lgbt-individuals-301062391.html'>New study finds more severe eating disorders among LGBT individuals</a></li><li>National Library of Medicine – <a target='_blank' href='https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10640266.2012.715512'>Eating disorders in men: Underdiagnosed, undertreated, and misunderstood</a></li><li>Journal of Eating Disorders - <a target='_blank' href='https://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40337-022-00614-w'><q>The male elephant in the room</q>: A qualitative evidence synthesis exploring male experiences of eating disorders</a></li></ul>
References
<ul><li>American Psychiatric Association. (2022). <em>Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: Fifth edition, text revision</em>. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association Publishing.</li><li>Health Direct. (2022). Eating disorders: Causes, types, symptoms, and treatments. <em>Health Direct. Retrieved</em> on 5 April, 2023, from: <a target='_blank' href='https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/eating-disorders'>Eating disorders - causes, types, symptoms and treatments | healthdirect</a></li><li>Mayo Clinic staff. (2023). Eating disorders: Symptoms and causes. <em>Mayo Clinic</em>. Retrieved on 5 April, 2023, from: <a target='_blank' href='https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/eating-disorders/symptoms-causes/syc-20353603'>Eating disorders - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic</a></li><li>Muhlheim, L. (2022). What’s an eating disorder? <em>Very Well Mind</em>. Retrieved on 5 April, 2023, from: <a target='_blank' href='https://www.verywellmind.com/eating-disorders-4157252#:~:text=Symptoms%20of%20an%20Eating%20Disorder%201%20Dietary%20restriction,Excessive%20thoughts%20surrounding%20food%2C%20body%20image%2C%20and%20weight'>Eating Disorders: Definition, Symptoms, Traits, Causes, Treatment (verywellmind.com)</a></li><li>(2023). Eating disorders. <em>National Institute of Mental Health</em>. Retrieved on 5 April, 2023, from: <a target='_blank' href='https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/eating-disorders'>NIMH » Eating Disorders (nih.gov)</a></li></ul>
